Introduction
India possesses one of the world's oldest and continuously existing civilizations known as Hinduism. A prominent aspect of Indian civilization is its unique 'Caste-system,' which has played a significant role in stratifying society and giving it a distinctive identity.
The Caste-system deeply permeates the social fabric of India, with its roots in ethnic affiliations represented by "Jati," and its ritualistic and symbolic significance reflected in its Varna aspect. Over time, the Caste-system has greatly influenced India's culture and has demonstrated remarkable resilience against internal and external challenges. Its adaptability and absorptive nature have allowed it to internalize foreign influences, leading to changes in meaning and form across different periods and regions.
Despite being perceived as a "closed society," the Indian social structure based on the Caste-system has not remained completely static. Some degree of mobility is observed within the caste framework. Sociocultural changes in India can be broadly categorized into three processes: "Sanskritisation," "Westernisation," and "Modernisation." These processes represent the Indian masses' attempts to achieve mobility both within and beyond the confines of the caste system.
It is important to recognize that while India's Caste-system has evolved and exhibited some degree of mobility, it remains a complex and evolving aspect of the country's social structure. The interplay of tradition and change continues to shape Indian society, making it a fascinating subject of study and contemplation.
Sanskritisation
The concept of "Sanskritisation" was coined by Prof. M.N. Srinivas in the field of Indian Sociology. It describes a phenomenon in which individuals or communities belonging to lower castes strive to adopt the customs, practices, and beliefs of higher castes as a means to elevate their social status. This process of cultural mobility was observed within the traditional social system of India.
Sanskritisation, a significant process of cultural change in Indian history, has been witnessed throughout the Indian sub-continent. This phenomenon involves lower castes attempting to emulate the life-styles of upper castes as a means to elevate their social status. It is not a recent development and has occurred over time. The process of Sanskritisation appears to be closely linked to the influence of the local "dominant caste." Besides Sanskritisation, two other processes, namely Modernisation and Westernisation, have also played roles in shaping Indian society.
The term "Sanskritisation" was introduced by M.N. Srinivas in his work "Social Change in Modern India," published in 1971. According to Srinivas, Sanskritisation refers to a process in which a lower caste, tribe, or other social group adopts the customs, rituals, ideology, and way of life of a higher, often "twice-born" caste to elevate its social status
Sanskritisation refers to a gradual process of upward mobility within the caste hierarchy, occurring over one or two generations. During this process, particular castes or sections of castes strive to improve their social position, resulting in "positional changes" without necessarily leading to "structural change" in the overall caste system. It is important to note that while individual castes may ascend or descend in status, the fundamental structure of the caste system remains intact.
The motivation for Sanskritisation often stems from castes that hold higher economic and political power but are rated relatively low in ritual ranking. Seeking greater recognition, these castes adopt the customs, rituals, and values of higher-ranking castes. Sanskritisation is not solely dependent on economic improvement, nor does economic development always lead to Sanskritisation. In some cases, political power can be the starting point, eventually leading to both economic development and Sanskritisation.
This process is not limited to Hindu castes alone; it can also be observed in tribal communities. Various tribal groups, such as the Bhils in Western India, Gonds and Oraons in Central India, and Pahadiyas in the Himalayan region, have undergone Sanskritisation and embraced Hindu identity.
Sanskritisation serves as a "reference group" for a caste seeking recognition. By aligning their beliefs, practices, values, and "life-styles" with a superior or dominant group, the caste aims to enhance its social standing. It's worth noting that Sanskritisation can differ in its manifestation across different regions and communities.
Impact of Sanskritisation
The introduction of modern education and exposure to Western literature and philosophy led to a significant transformation in the mental horizons and perspectives of people. They embraced rationality, liberal ideas, and humanitarian thoughts, incorporating them into their lives. The Vedas, which were products of intellectual contemplation and empirical observation, served as a foundation for the creation of human imagination, often interpreted speculatively through the Upnishads or mythology.
During this period, reformists and their organizations primarily focused on economic and social aspects. They sought to establish a social order based on Vedic teachings and practices, while criticizing the excessive rituals and superstitions propagated by selfish individuals to exploit the ignorant and poor masses. Rational and scientific interpretations of the Vedas were emphasized, leading to a reduction or elimination of the gap between ritual practices and secular activities. This rational approach also contributed to the upliftment of marginalized individuals.
As part of this evolving social landscape, lower caste groups that attained positions of secular power sought the assistance of Brahmins, particularly during rituals, worship, and offerings to deities. This collaboration between different caste groups demonstrated a shifting societal dynamic and an increasing openness to the positive aspects of Vedic traditions.
Criticisms of Sanskritisation
J.F. Stall and other anthropologists argue that Sanskritisation, as used by M.N. Srinivas, is a complex concept or category of concepts. The term itself can be misleading since its connection to the term Sanskrit is intricate. Yogendra Singh further points out that Sanskritisation fails to account for various aspects of cultural change in both historical and contemporary India, as it overlooks the influence of non-sanskritic traditions. Different regions in India have been influenced by various cultural traditions, with Islamic traditions providing a basis for cultural imitation in parts of northern India, particularly in Punjab.
While Sanskritisation is believed to be facilitated by political and economic forces, certain paradoxes emerge when interpreting social mobility changes. For instance, the "policy of reservation," a political and constitutional attempt to elevate the status of lower caste and class individuals, presents a different picture. While theoretically, the policy of reservation should support Sanskritisation, it seems to go against it in practice.
The beneficiaries of reservation policies have developed a vested interest in identifying themselves as "dalits" or Scheduled Caste people. They choose to be recognized as such to continuously avail the benefits provided by the policy. This presents a unique contradiction in the process of social mobility and identity formation in contemporary India.
Westernisation
The process of Westernization of the caste-system in India can be traced back to the efforts of missionaries to convert Indians to Christianity and the arrival of the East India Company in India, initially for trade but later for political dominance. By 1858, the East India Company had successfully established British Imperial Rule in India.
Under British rule, Indian society and culture underwent radical and lasting changes. The British brought with them new technologies, institutions, knowledge, beliefs, and values, which became significant sources of social mobility for both individuals and groups. It was in this context that M.N. Srinivas introduced the term "Westernisation" to elucidate the transformations that occurred in Indian society and culture as a result of Western influence through British rule. The impact of Westernisation on the caste-system and broader Indian society has been profound and continues to shape various aspects of contemporary India.
M.N. Srinivas coined the term "Westernisation" to describe the changes that took place in Indian society and culture during the period of over 150 years of British rule. This term encompasses various transformations occurring at different levels, such as technology, institutions, ideology, and values. The influence of British rule had a profound impact on India, leading to the assimilation of Western elements into Indian society, which continues to shape the country's social fabric and cultural landscape.
In comparison to Sanskritisation, Westernisation is a relatively straightforward concept. It denotes the impact of Western contact, particularly British rule, on Indian society and culture. M.N. Srinivas introduced the term "Westernisation" to describe the changes experienced by a non-western country due to prolonged contact with a western one. It implies certain value preferences, including humanitarianism, which encompasses a genuine concern for the well-being of all human beings regardless of caste, economic status, religion, age, or gender.
Westernisation involves not only the introduction of new institutions but also fundamental changes in existing ones. For instance, India had schools before the arrival of the British, but the British-introduced schools were different from the pre-existing ones. Other institutions like the army, civil service, and law courts were similarly affected by Western influence.
Despite the increase in Westernisation, the process of Sanskritisation continues alongside it. Both processes occur simultaneously, and in some cases, Westernisation may even accelerate Sanskritisation. For example, the modern amenities introduced by Western impact, such as postal facilities, railways, buses, and newspapers, facilitate more organized religious pilgrimages, meetings, and caste solidarities compared to the past. These advancements create new opportunities for cultural exchange and transformation, leading to a complex interplay of both Western and traditional influences in Indian society.
Impact of Westernisation
Modern education, influenced by the knowledge flourishing in Europe after the Renaissance movement, played a pivotal role in widening the mental horizons of the Indian intelligentsia. During the latter half of the nineteenth century, the British government in India took significant steps to make education accessible to all sections of society, regardless of caste or creed. However, despite these efforts, formal modern education remained limited to a small segment of the population.
One of the significant impacts of modern education was its highlighting of the evils and harshness present in various social customs and practices of that era, such as untouchability, mistreatment of women, Sati, polygamy, and child marriage. These practices came under scrutiny, thanks to modern education, which attracted the attention of intellectuals and social reformers. These visionaries recognized the need to address social, political, and economic issues caused by ignorance and irrationality propagated by certain vested interests. Consequently, they proposed remedies to address these ills and took the responsibility to transform India into a modern, open, pluralistic, culturally rich, prosperous, and powerful nation, moving away from a fragmented, poverty-stricken, superstitious, weak, indifferent, backward, and insular society.
The efforts of social reformers and intellectuals resulted in the abolition of Sati and slavery and a significant reduction in female infanticide. Modern education also equipped national leaders with intellectual tools to challenge the oppressive British Raj, leading to a growing realization of the value of liberty and freedom among Indians. Exposure to the philosophies of renowned thinkers like Locke, Mill, Rousseau, Voltaire, Spencer, and Burke further strengthened their understanding of the reasons and impact of key historical revolutions like those in England, France, and America.
Criticisms of Westernisation
The concepts of Sanskritisation and Westernisation mainly focus on analyzing social change from a "cultural" perspective rather than a "structural" one. This limitation restricts their applicability and scope of use. M.N. Srinivas's model primarily explains the process of social change within the context of India's caste system and may not be directly applicable to other societies. Additionally, although Srinivas claimed that the concept of Westernisation is "ethically neutral," it is not entirely so, as it has its own contradictions.
The Western model, which Srinivas admired, has its flaws, as evident in instances of racial prejudice, color segregation, and the exploitative nature of Western economies. These aspects contradict the humanitarian ideals and rational outlook on life that Srinivas associates with Westernisation.
Daniel Lerner has raised objections to the use of Westernisation as conceived by Srinivas:
a. The term "Westernisation" may be too narrow and may not necessarily refer to the imitation of Western countries; it could include other influences, such as Russia.
b. Prolonged contact with the West can give rise to an elite class whose attitude towards the West may be ambivalent or contrary to what Srinivas assumed. This is exemplified by the appeal of Communism in non-Western countries.
c. Westernisation in one aspect of behavior or at one level does not necessarily lead to Westernisation in other related areas or levels.
d. While there are certain common elements in Westernisation, each country represents a specific variant of a broader culture, leading to significant differences between one country and another.
These critiques highlight the complexities and nuances involved in the process of social change and the influence of Westernisation, making it a subject of ongoing academic scrutiny and debate.
Difference between Sanskritisation and Westernisation
- The Sanskritisation process is associated with promoting a sacred outlook, while Westernisation process fosters a secular outlook.
- Sanskritisation involves upward mobility through imitation, whereas Westernisation entails upward mobility through development and progress.
- Sanskritisation implies mobility within the confines of the caste system, while Westernisation implies mobility beyond the boundaries of caste.
- While Sanskritisation discourages meat-eating and alcohol consumption, Westernisation promotes meat-eating and the consumption of alcohol.